Motivating Operations: The Foundation
Motivating operations (MOs) are environmental variables that alter two things simultaneously: the reinforcing or punishing effectiveness of a consequence (the value-altering effect) and the current frequency of behavior that has been reinforced or punished by that consequence (the behavior-altering effect). Jack Michael, whose work in the 1980s and beyond shaped our understanding of these variables, distinguished between two broad categories: unconditioned motivating operations (UMOs) and conditioned motivating operations (CMOs).
Understanding this distinction is essential for BCBA exam preparation because motivating operations questions appear frequently and require you to analyze scenarios involving both types. The concepts also have direct clinical significance for designing effective interventions.
Unconditioned Motivating Operations (UMOs)
UMOs are motivating operations whose value-altering and behavior-altering effects do not depend on a learning history. They are linked to biological needs and affect all humans without prior conditioning. The primary UMOs include:
- Food deprivation and satiation: Going without food increases the reinforcing value of food (establishing effect), while recent consumption decreases it (abolishing effect)
- Water deprivation and satiation: Similar to food, the absence of water makes water a more effective reinforcer
- Sleep deprivation: Lack of sleep increases the value of rest and sleep as reinforcers
- Activity deprivation: Being prevented from engaging in a preferred activity increases its reinforcing value (related to the Premack Principle)
- Temperature extremes: Being too cold establishes warmth as a reinforcer; being too hot establishes cooling as a reinforcer
- Painful stimulation: The presence of painful stimuli establishes pain reduction as a reinforcer and evokes behaviors that have previously removed pain
Establishing vs. Abolishing Effects
Every MO can function as either an establishing operation (EO) or an abolishing operation (AO). An EO increases the reinforcing effectiveness of a stimulus and evokes behavior that produces it. An AO decreases the reinforcing effectiveness of a stimulus and abates behavior that produces it. Food deprivation is an EO for food reinforcement, while food satiation is an AO for food reinforcement. These are not separate MOs but rather two ends of a continuum for the same variable.
Conditioned Motivating Operations (CMOs)
CMOs are motivating operations whose value-altering effects depend on a learning history. They acquire their motivating properties through pairing with other MOs or through correlation with the availability or unavailability of reinforcement. Michael identified three subtypes of CMOs, each with distinct characteristics:
Surrogate CMO (CMO-S)
A CMO-S is a stimulus that has been paired with a UMO and, as a result, acquires similar motivating properties. For example, if a specific room is consistently associated with food deprivation (perhaps mealtimes always follow time in that room), the room itself might acquire establishing effects for food-related behavior. The CMO-S essentially "borrows" the motivating effect of the UMO it has been paired with.
Reflexive CMO (CMO-R)
A CMO-R is a stimulus condition that signals the worsening of conditions (or the removal of something good) unless a specific behavior occurs. The classic example is the warning stimulus in an avoidance procedure. When a teacher says, "If you do not start your worksheet, you will lose recess," the verbal warning functions as a CMO-R. It establishes its own removal as a reinforcer and evokes whatever behavior has previously removed similar warnings. The CMO-R derives its motivating effect from the relationship between the stimulus and a forthcoming aversive consequence.
Transitive CMO (CMO-T)
A CMO-T is a stimulus condition that establishes the reinforcing value of another stimulus that is needed to access a terminal reinforcer. For example, a locked door (when you need to get through it) establishes the key as a reinforcer and evokes behavior that has previously produced keys. The locked door does not directly provide reinforcement; rather, it creates a condition in which an intermediate stimulus (the key) becomes valuable. This concept has important implications for verbal behavior and requesting.
Value-Altering vs. Behavior-Altering Effects
A frequent exam mistake is confusing the two effects of motivating operations. The value-altering effect changes how reinforcing or punishing a consequence is right now. The behavior-altering effect changes the current frequency of behavior related to that consequence. These effects occur simultaneously, but they are conceptually distinct. Questions may ask you to identify which effect is being described in a given scenario.
For example, after 8 hours without water: the increased reinforcing effectiveness of water is the value-altering effect (specifically, an establishing effect), and the increased frequency of going to the water fountain is the behavior-altering effect (specifically, an evocative effect).
Clinical Applications
Understanding MOs is critical for effective intervention design. When using positive reinforcement, the clinician must consider the current motivating conditions. Delivering a food reinforcer to a child who just ate lunch (satiation as an AO) will be far less effective than delivering the same reinforcer when the child has not eaten recently (deprivation as an EO). This is why behavior analysts conduct preference assessments close to the time of instruction and rotate reinforcers to prevent satiation.
Motivating operations also explain why some problem behaviors occur at certain times but not others. A child who engages in aggression to escape demands may do so more frequently when ill or tired because the illness or fatigue functions as an EO for escape-maintained behavior. Understanding this allows the clinician to adjust antecedent conditions proactively rather than only responding after problem behavior occurs.
Exam Preparation Tips
When preparing for MO questions on the BCBA exam, focus on these key distinctions:
- Differentiate MOs from discriminative stimuli (SDs signal availability; MOs change value)
- Know all three CMO subtypes with clinical examples of each
- Practice identifying the value-altering and behavior-altering effects separately
- Remember that MOs are temporary, changing states rather than permanent characteristics
- Understand that MOs affect entire response classes, not just single behaviors
Michael's work on motivating operations remains one of the most heavily tested conceptual areas on the BCBA exam. Invest significant study time in understanding and applying these concepts to clinical scenarios.