Two Ways Behavior Is Controlled
Behavior can come under the control of the environment in two broad ways. Contingency-shaped behavior develops from direct exposure to the consequences of the behavior. Rule-governed behavior is controlled by a verbal description of a contingency, known as a rule. Skinner emphasized this distinction, and it matters for understanding both human learning and the limits of verbal instruction.
Contingency-Shaped Behavior
A toddler learns to walk by falling and standing again, and each step is shaped by balance and movement. A child touches a hot stove and learns to avoid it. A person learns to ride a bike by wobbling, correcting, and being reinforced by forward motion. No one needed to explain the contingency. The learner contacts the consequence directly and behavior changes as a result.
- Behavior is sensitive to changes in the actual contingencies.
- Learning is often gradual and may require many trials.
- It does not require language, which is why contingency shaping occurs in nonhuman animals.
Rule-Governed Behavior
A rule is a verbal description of a contingency. "If you wear a helmet, you will be safer in a crash" is a rule. Behavior that follows the rule is rule-governed even if the person has never had a crash. A rule specifies, explicitly or implicitly, an antecedent, a behavior, and a consequence.
- Learning can be rapid. You can follow a recipe on your first try.
- It supports behavior with delayed or improbable consequences, such as saving for retirement, exercising for long-term health, or studying months before an exam.
- It can protect people from harmful contingencies, as when we follow rules about not touching live wires.
Why Rules Control Behavior
Behavior analysts explain rule-following as the product of a reinforcement history for following rules. Children are reinforced for doing what they are told by parents and teachers, so rule-following becomes a generalized operant. Rules can function in several ways.
Rules as discriminative stimuli
A rule can act as an SD, signaling that a response will produce reinforcement. "The store is open until nine" evokes going to the store.
Rules as motivating operations
Some accounts hold that rules can alter the value of a consequence and evoke behavior related to it. A warning that a storm is coming increases the value of securing property.
Rules as function-altering stimuli
Schlinger's account emphasizes that verbal stimuli can alter the functions of other stimuli. After being told that a red button delivers a prize, the red button becomes an SD without the learner contacting it.
Types of Rule Following
Hayes and colleagues described three types within relational frame theory.
- Pliance: Rule following controlled by a history of socially mediated consequences for matching the rule. A child puts on a coat because a parent said so, and the parent monitors compliance.
- Tracking: Rule following controlled by the correspondence between the rule and the way the world is arranged. A person follows a driving direction because following it has led to arrival in the past.
- Augmenting: Rules that alter the value of consequences. A motivational speech that makes an outcome more valuable is an augmental.
Insensitivity to Contingencies
A major finding is that rule-governed behavior can be insensitive to actual contingencies. If a person has been told that a task will be rewarded and the reinforcement stops, the person may keep responding because the rule continues to control behavior. Similarly, a client who was told "people will laugh at me if I speak up" may avoid speaking even in supportive settings, never contacting the contingency that would disconfirm the rule.
This has clinical implications. Anxiety, avoidance, and rigid patterns of behavior can be maintained by rules that were never tested. Therapies such as ACT intentionally create contact with contingencies and teach flexible rule following.
Clinical Applications
Parent training and classroom management
Posting clear rules and reviewing expectations is a classic antecedent strategy. Rules are more effective when they specify the behavior, condition, and consequence, and when the consequences are delivered reliably. "Raise your hand and wait to be called on; I will answer your question" is better than "Be respectful."
Behavior contracts
Contingency contracts are written rules that specify the target behavior, the reinforcer, and the timeline. They allow delayed reinforcement to control behavior, such as completing homework in exchange for weekend privileges.
Self-management
Self-rules, such as "If I exercise three times this week, I can buy that book," enable people to manage their own behavior. They are strengthened by tracking correspondence between the rule and results.
Organizational behavior management
Policies and procedures are rules. For rule-governed behavior at work to persist, there must be ongoing feedback and consequences that reinforce rule following. Otherwise rules weaken and are ignored.
Building Effective Rules
- Make the rule specific and describe observable behavior.
- Include the consequence, particularly if it is positive.
- Use language the learner can understand, and verify understanding by having the learner restate the rule.
- Ensure the stated contingency is accurate, because inaccurate rules can lead to loss of credibility.
- Provide reinforcement for rule following, so that the history of reinforcement supports it.
- Periodically allow contact with the actual contingencies where it is safe.
Contingency-Shaped vs Rule-Governed in Practice
Consider two ways of teaching a child to cross the street. In a contingency-shaped approach, the child would learn through the consequences of crossing at different times, which is obviously dangerous. In a rule-governed approach, we teach "Look both ways and wait for the walk signal," which allows the child to avoid the risks. Often both are combined: rules provide quick direction, and natural consequences refine behavior.
Some skills, such as athletic performance or playing an instrument, require significant contingency shaping beyond the rules. Instructions can speed up initial learning but fine motor adjustments emerge through practice and consequences.
Exam Strategies
- If behavior occurs because of a verbal description, even though the person has not contacted the consequence, think rule-governed.
- If behavior changes because the person directly experienced reinforcement or punishment, think contingency-shaped.
- If a question describes behavior that continues even when the contingency changes, think insensitivity associated with rule-governed behavior.
- Know the three types: pliance, tracking, and augmenting.
Key Takeaways
Contingency-shaped behavior is established through direct consequences, and rule-governed behavior is controlled by verbal descriptions of contingencies. Rules help with delayed outcomes and safety but can produce insensitivity to actual contingencies. Build clear, accurate rules and reinforce rule following.