What Is Reinforcement?
Reinforcement is a response-consequence relation in which a stimulus change immediately follows a response and increases the future frequency of that type of behavior under similar conditions. Notice that it is defined by its effect on behavior. If the behavior does not increase, the consequence is not a reinforcer, no matter how pleasant it seems.
There are two types. In positive reinforcement, a stimulus is added following the behavior. In negative reinforcement, a stimulus is removed, reduced, or prevented following the behavior. In both cases, behavior increases. Positive and negative do not mean good and bad.
Positive Reinforcement Examples
- Classroom: A student completes a math problem and the teacher gives a high five. Problem completion increases.
- Home: A toddler says "juice" and receives juice. Requesting increases.
- Workplace: An employee who submits reports on time receives a bonus, and on-time submission becomes more consistent.
- Clinic: A learner who sits with a calm body earns two minutes with a preferred toy, and calm sitting increases.
- Everyday life: You check social media and see a new message. Checking becomes more frequent.
Negative Reinforcement Examples
- Classroom: A student asks for a break when a task is too hard, and the task is removed. Break requests increase.
- Home: A parent gives in to a child's tantrum in a store, and the crying stops. The parent's behavior of giving in is negatively reinforced (removal of crying), while the child's tantrum is positively reinforced (gaining the item).
- Everyday life: You take an aspirin and your headache goes away, so you are more likely to take aspirin for future headaches.
- Driving: You buckle your seat belt and the alarm stops. Buckling increases.
Escape and avoidance
Escape means behavior terminates an aversive stimulus already present. Avoidance means behavior prevents the aversive stimulus from occurring. Leaving a loud room is escape; checking the weather and carrying an umbrella to stay dry is avoidance. Both are negative reinforcement.
Negative Reinforcement vs Punishment
This is the most common error. Remember the effect on behavior:
- If behavior increases after a stimulus is removed, it is negative reinforcement.
- If behavior decreases after a stimulus is removed, it is negative punishment (for example, losing a privilege).
- If behavior decreases after a stimulus is added, it is positive punishment.
Negative reinforcement is not punishment. Punishment always decreases behavior, and negative reinforcement always increases it.
A Four-Step Decision Process
- Identify the behavior.
- Identify the consequence that immediately follows.
- Ask: was a stimulus added or removed?
- Ask: did the behavior increase or decrease in the future?
Example: "A teacher stops giving math worksheets after a child cries, and crying becomes more frequent." The stimulus (worksheet) was removed, and the behavior increased. This is negative reinforcement.
Factors That Affect Reinforcement
- Immediacy: Reinforcement delivered within seconds is more effective. Delays weaken the relation unless a bridge such as a token or a verbal marker is used.
- Contingency: The reinforcer must be delivered only after the target response.
- Magnitude: Larger or higher quality reinforcers generally work better, but satiation can reduce effectiveness.
- Motivating operations: Deprivation increases the value of a reinforcer, and satiation decreases it.
- Response effort: A reinforcer must be worth the effort. Difficult responses require stronger reinforcers.
- Schedule: Continuous reinforcement is best for acquiring behaviors, while intermittent schedules maintain them.
Unintended Reinforcement
Many problem behaviors persist because of accidental reinforcement. Giving a child candy to stop a tantrum teaches that tantrums produce candy. Letting a student leave the room when he complains teaches that complaining produces escape. Behavior analysts must review both the intended and unintended consequences in the environment, which is a core part of an FBA.
Clinical Tips
- Conduct preference assessments regularly because preferences change.
- Pair reinforcement with praise to build conditioned reinforcers and prepare for the natural environment.
- Use differential reinforcement of alternative or incompatible behavior to reduce problem behavior without relying on punishment.
- Thin reinforcement gradually to avoid ratio strain.
- Prefer positive reinforcement when building skills. Negative reinforcement works but can create problems when it relies on aversive conditions.
Reinforcement in Natural Settings
Reinforcement is not only something therapists deliver during sessions. It is operating all the time in homes, schools, and workplaces. A coworker who laughs at a joke is positively reinforcing joke telling. A noisy appliance that stops when it is unplugged negatively reinforces unplugging. Because these contingencies are always present, behavior analysts teach caregivers and teachers to notice them and arrange them deliberately.
When you review a case, ask what the person gets or avoids as a result of the behavior. Often the answer reveals a pattern of reinforcement that was never planned. Once the pattern is visible, you can keep what works, remove accidental reinforcement for problem behavior, and add reinforcement for skills you want to see more often.
Exam Examples
Example A
A client puts on headphones when the vacuum starts, and headphone use increases. Negative reinforcement (escape from noise).
Example B
A client earns a sticker for each completed chore, and chore completion increases. Positive reinforcement.
Example C
A client whose phone is taken away after hitting hits less often. Negative punishment.
Notice how each example is solved by looking only at the stimulus change and the direction of change in behavior.
Key Takeaways
Reinforcement increases behavior. Positive adds a stimulus; negative removes one. Do not confuse negative reinforcement with punishment, check for unintended reinforcement, and always define reinforcement by the effect on future behavior.